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论文范文
1. Introduction The emergence of nanotechnology and its convergence with other disciplines such as biomaterial science, cell and molecular biology, and medicine, referred to as nanomedicine, have drawn the attention of biomedical research due to its potential applications in the diagnosis and treatment of diseases. Nanoparticles (NPs) are the main system used in nanomedicine, as theranostic agents with high molecular specificity [1–3]. Due to their size (1–100 nm), nanoparticles have a large surface area-to-volume ratio, which allows them to absorb high quantities of drugs [4] and to be spread easily throughout the bloodstream [5]. Their larger surface area gives them unique characteristics, as it improves their mechanical, magnetic, optical, and catalytic properties, thus increasing their potential pharmacological use [4]. Studies on the potential effects and benefits of NPs in diseases involving oxidative stress are receiving growing attention. Cardiovascular risk factors such as hypercholesterolemia or hypertension promote the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), which leads to the oxidative stress seen in inflammatory diseases such as atherosclerosis [6]. Therefore, the maintenance and optimization of antioxidant defences can minimize side effects. In this sense, nanoparticles are of great interest, because of their antioxidant properties and easy internalization by the cells. In this review, we discuss the main mechanisms of oxidative stress implicated in the development and progression of vascular diseases. We also summarize current knowledge in relation to each pathway and mention some examples of the use of NPs as theranostic agents. 2. Nanoparticles in Medicine 2.1. General Characteristics The rapid development of nanotechnology for biological purposes has had a tremendous impact on medicine. Nanotechnology enables the manufacture and manipulation of materials on a nanometer scale, thus allowing the development of new tools for the treatment, diagnosis, monitoring, and control of biological systems. This application of nanotechnology in the field of medicine is known as nanomedicine. Nanoparticles, the most widely used nanotechnology platforms in nanomedicine, are particles with two or more dimensions on the nanometer scale, according to the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM). These NPs have special enhanced physical and chemical properties compared to their corresponding bulk materials. These properties include a high surface area-to-volume ratio and a unique quantum size effect due to specific electronic structures [7]. In addition to their composition, the properties of NPs depend on their size and shape [8]. Generally, in order to obtain monodispersed NPs and facilitate their internalization by cells, it is necessary to control their size and shape and thus minimize aggregation [9]. It is because of these properties that NPs have been considered as diagnostic, therapeutic, and carrier agents in biomedical applications [1–3]. For instance, some applications are thanked for their surface-mass ratio, which is greater than that of other particles and enables them to bind to, absorb, or carry other molecules [3]. Furthermore, they can be modified or manufactured with two or more materials to improve their physical properties. 
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